Domestic Violence and Welfare Reform

by April Kaplan

Background

A substantial number of welfare recipients are the victims of domestic violence. Under the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program, they will be expected to work and be subject to the state time limits unless excepted. However, many of these recipients will face significant problems in finding or keeping work until this violence and its after effects are addressed.

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996 provides a hardship exception and the Family Violence Option allows states to excempt up to 20% of the state’s caseload from the 60-month time limit in receiving benefits. The hardship exception includes those who are "battered or subjected to extreme cruelty."

TANF law also gives a state the option to certify that it has established and is enforcing standards to screen and identify recipients with a history of domestic violence, to refer them to counseling and supportive services, and to waive some program requirements, such as time limits (subject to the 20% limit on exemptions from the federal five-year time limit), in cases where the requirements would make it harder for them to escape domestic violence or would unfairly penalize women who are victims of domestic violence or those at risk of further violence.

Senators Wellstone and Murray had presented a Senate amendment that provided that states would not be subject to any numerical limitation in the granting of good cause waivers in accordance with the Family Violence Option. Under the provision of that amendment, domestic violence victims could be excluded from the state’s work participation rate, time limits and failure to cooperate in establishing paternity. The amendment also would have prohibited the Federal Parent Locator Service from disclosing information (except to a court) if there was reasonable evidence of domestic violence or child abuse, or if the health, safety or liberty of a parent or child would be put unreasonably at risk by the disclosure. The Senate provision was not included in the conference agreement; however, the agreement requires that the US General Accounting Office conduct a study of the effects of family violence on the use of welfare programs.

Senators Wellstone and Murray do intend to pursue having the amendment attached to other pieces of legislation. For more information contact Charlotte Oldham-Moore at Senator Wellstone’s office, 202-224-8440.

Policy Issues

In addressing the impact of domestic violence on TANF recipients, states will want to consider some or all of the following issues:

Should states opt into the Family Violence Option of PRWORA? States may accept the Family Violence Option in whole or in part. Currently, the following states have opted in or enabled the Family Violence Option: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, Georgia, Guam, Hawaii, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, Utah, Washington, West Virginia and Wyoming. For more information, contact National Organization for Women Legal and Education Defense Fund, 202-544-4470.

If states do not select the Family Violence Option, will they make other provisions for domestic violence victims? States have several approaches to choose from when helping domestic violence victims. Some options include: exempting battered women from certain time limits or work requirements; granting extensions; assisting immigrant women and their children; or continuing past domestic violence provisions. According to a July 3, 1997, NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund report, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, the District of Columbia, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, New Mexico, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, the Virgin Island, and Wisconsin have some domestic violence language or provisions in their welfare plans. States that have do not include any domestic violence provisions include Kansas, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma and Vermont. For more information on state Family Violence Option provisions, contact NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, 202-544-4470.

How will states prepare service delivery personnel to reorganize and deal with victims of domestic violence? Victims of domestic violence appear in many arenas including: child support enforcement offices, housing offices, employment departments, mental health departments, police departments, hospitals and in workplaces. It is important to train all of these workers about the safety and confidentiality issues victims confront. Information needs to be provided that explains what domestic violence is and what services are available to survivors in the community, such as counseling, shelters, substance abuse treatment programs, health care services and legal services. Training could also include developing assessment skills, interview skills and crisis intervention.

What approach will states take in addressing the service needs and extra barriers of domestic violence victims who must move from welfare to work? Under TANF, states have great flexibility to use funds to assist welfare recipients in moving from welfare to work. Along with job training, job placement, child care and other assistance that most recipients need, domestic violence victims need additional support services. Many victims and their children suffer from physical and mental problems associated with battering, which may hinder women from moving off welfare. States may want to address these problems initially so that women may resolve them to a point where they can have a successful transition from welfare to work. Some suggestions are: screening applicants or participants, comprehensive case management, developing integrated community base service systems, referral systems, and procedures for immediate assessment. Referral systems should maintain lists of referral agencies, the services

they provide, their capacity and a contact person. Other services include: group support and therapy sessions, counseling for children, 24-hour hot lines and crisis counseling for victims, safe temporary housing to escape harm, family preservation services, home visitors programs, and training workers about the needs of domestic violence victims. For information on other welfare to work strategies, contact Wendy Pollack at the Poverty Law Project, 312-263-3830 x238.

What service will states provide to children who are witnesses of domestic violence? Two thousand children die in outburst of family violence each year; 140,000 are injured physically and emotionally. In at least half of these cases, there is evidence of both child abuse and domestic violence. Children often learn the dangerous lesson that abusive behaviors are acceptable. A national study found that men who witnessed their fathers battering their mothers are three times more likely to hit their wives than those who did not witness such behavior. Further research from the National Research Council found that children exposed to domestic violence endure depression, developmental problems, acute and chronic physical and mental health problems, and aggressive or delinquent behavior.

Creative Concepts-Ice Projects in Bellingham, Washington, helps youths from Catholic Community Service who have witnessed abuse to learn how to deal with anger and aggression through playing hockey. Children learn that an impulsive act of violence ends in a penalty. Other programs include Minnesota’s "My Family and Me: Violence-Free," which promotes early intervention for students who are being abused or are witnessing violence in their homes, and North Carolina’s collaborative effort between the Johnston County public schools, the University of North Carolina and the state health department, which teaches about the social conflicts that contribute to violence between men and women.

How will states treat women who have been subjected to domestic violence and who move across state lines? Some states have opted to lower benefits to welfare recipients who move from another state for fear they are moving to gain better benefits. However, in most cases of domestic violence, recipients are moving to escape their batterers and under these circumstances states may want to consider whether using the lower benefit level is appropriate. In addition, states will need to decide how exemption and time limit extensions will be handled when a woman moves from a state with such exemptions to one without.

Will states treat immigrant battered women the same as other battered women? The welfare law limits the eligibility of some legal immigrants, though the Attorney General has issued provisions allowing immigrants to receive services and assistance "necessary for the protection of life and safety." It is not clear whether this would include cash assistance. However, states do have the option to except immigrants or provide assistance under state programs. Forthcoming from the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence will be a working paper on immigrant battered women. For information on immigrant domestic violence victim’s eligibility, contact Minty Siu Chung at Ayuda. For further immigrant-related provisions in the welfare law, see "Welfare Reform and Immigrants: Recent Developments and a Review of Key State Decisions" at http://www.welfareinfo.org/kramer.htm or contact Rikki Kramer at 202-628-5790.

Should victims have to identify the father for purposes of collecting child support?

Federal law (42 U.S.C. 602(a)(26)(B)) allows domestic violence victims and others with good cause the opportunity to request a waiver from cooperating with child support enforcement requirements if the health or safety of a parent or child would be put at risk by the disclosure of such paternal information. In the past, few recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) have sought the good cause exemption. With the new strict child support enforcement rules in PRWORA, states may want to consider giving more attention to the possibility for good cause claims in certain cases of domestic violence. For further details on state flexibility in determining good cause, refer to "Child Support Cooperation Issues" by the Center for Law and Social Policy, 202-328-5140. For information on child support enforcement issues see "Child Support Enforcement and Welfare Reform" at http://www.welfareinfo.org/yates2.htm or contact Jessica Yates, 202-628-5790.

Should victims of domestic violence be automatically exempt and, if exempt, what kind of services should be provided? An automatic exemption may discourage women who are able and willing to work. Moreover, many women will have the capacity to work once given the proper tools and services. It is important that the underlying issues be addressed when exempting women from the requirements of PRWORA so that they do not need a permanent exemption.

Currently the U.S. Departments of Human Services (HHS) and of Justice (DOJ) are developing guidelines for states to implement the Family Violence Option. It is not know when these will be issued.

Research Findings

Although domestic violence crosses economic and social boundaries, there have been several studies that show a correlation between welfare and domestic violence.

A 1996 Bureau of Justice report stated that women living in households with annual incomes below $10,000 are four times more likely to be violently attacked, usually by intimates. In 1992, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy’s Family Income Study found that 60% of the AFDC recipients suffered from some type of domestic violence.

According to a joint study conducted by the Institute for Research on Poverty and the Joint Center for Poverty Research at the West Humboldt Park Employment Center in Chicago, 55.1% of the women receiving AFDC reported having experienced physical aggression, while 41.6% of non-AFDC recipients experienced physical aggression. For more information, contact Susan Lloyd at the Joint Center for Poverty Research, 312-726-8000, x251.

Key findings in "Trapped by Poverty/Trapped by Abuse" show that abused women reported arguments about child support (30%), visitation (23%), child custody (14.7%), as well as interference from their intimate partners with education, training and work (15%-49%). For more information on studies pertaining to the impact of domestic violence and welfare reform, contact Jody Raphael at the Taylor Institute.

"A Welfare-to-Work Program: A Preliminary Analysis", is a report of participants in a Passaic County education and training program. Results of this survey showed that 14.6% were currently victims of physical domestic violence and 57.3% had been victims of physical domestic violence in the past. Forty seven percent stated that boyfriends do not encourage them to participate in education and training, and 39.7% reported that their partners actively try to

prevent them from obtaining education or training. For more information on these studies, contact William Curcio at the Passaic County Board of Social Service, 201-881-3169.

Similar results can be found in two studies done by the McCormack Institute and the Center for Survey Research (617-287-7200), and the Better Homes Fund (617-964-3834).

Domestic violence has a clear negative impact on employability and outcomes in the workplace, as demonstrated in a review done by the National Workplace Resource Center on Domestic Violence. Statistics showed that 94% of corporate security and safety directors surveyed ranked domestic violence as a high security problem. According to the report, 74% of employed battered women were harassed at work, either in person or over the telephone, causing 56% of them to be late for work at least five times a month, 28% to leave early at least five days a month, and 54% to miss at least three full days of work a month. In a survey of senior executives of Fortune 1,000 companies, 49% of the respondents reported that domestic violence has a harmful effect on their company’s productivity, 47% said it affects attendance, and 44% said it increases insurance and medical costs. For more information on the impact of domestic violence on the workplace, contact the Family Violence Prevention Fund, 415-252-8900.

Innovative Practices

Innovative practices are being developed in state departments, health care facilities, businesses, law enforcement agencies and other organizations.

California: As part of National Domestic Violence Workplace Education Day, the City of San Francisco had a brown bag lunch day and sent the lunch money that would have been spent to Partners Ending Domestic Abuse in San Francisco. Contact Mayor Willie Lewis Brown Jr.’s office, 415-554-6141. The Los Angeles City Attorney has developed a policy in support of employee victims of domestic violence, which provides assistance to employees of the City Attorney who are subjected to domestic violence; call 213-237-0023. The state’s Male Involvement Program will have an awareness and information campaign. It will also have education and counseling services specifically targeted to adolescent boys and young men to cover issues like domestic violence prevention.

Colorado: The Colorado approach mixes public and private efforts. With the help of the Colorado Domestic Violence Coalition and the state’s department of health, communities have formed domestic violence task forces. Using funding from the Colorado Trust (a private foundation) the Coalition, working with state and local agencies, has created protocols and training manuals for public health practitioners and the criminal justice system. For more information, contact the Coalition, 303-839-1852.

Connecticut: In Connecticut the legislature initiated the Domestic Violence Training Project to provide on-site training and technical assistance for 33 private and public hospitals, HMOs and substance abuse clinics. It has also supported a Resource Center on Domestic Violence to provide clients with comprehensive information. For more information, contact the Coalition Against Domestic Violence, 860-524-5890.

Florida: Florida has developed a model policy on domestic violence in the workplace, to heighten awareness of domestic violence and to provide guidance for employees and management on how to address the occurrence of domestic violence and its effects in the workplace. Under the WAGES program, Florida’s TANF victims of domestic violence will be referred for counseling and supportive services.

Illinois: The state’s Attorney General announced that emergency room health care providers across the state will be trained to recognize, treat, and refer domestic violence victims to local services. The Attorney General will also provide Polaroid camera kits to 400 law enforcement agencies statewide to make it easier to document women’s injuries. Contact Family Violence Prevention Fund’s National Workplace Resource Center on Domestic Violence, 415-252-8900.

Maine: Under Maine law, a claimant who leaves employment voluntarily may recover unemployment benefits if leaving was necessary to protect the claimant from domestic abuse and the claimant made reasonable efforts to preserve their employment.

Massachusetts: Project WATCH is a statewide domestic violence surveillance system set up by the Department of Health and the Massachusetts Research Institute to track incidents of abuse in clinics and hospitals.

Michigan: The state incorporated a domestic violence component into its family preservation program, Families First, in 1993. In conjunction with the Family Violence Prevention Fund, the state developed and implemented a training curriculum for family preservation workers and created a program to provide family preservation services to at-risk families in battered women’s shelters.

Minnesota: The Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention project integrates the justice system into a community-wide effort that involves social service agencies, police, prosecutors, family and criminal court judges, jails, shelter providers, and more recently, health care providers and child welfare workers. For more information, contact National Training Project, 218-722-2781.

Nevada: Training will be given to staff who will be involved in administering the TANF program that includes a focus on domestic violence. The Nevada Domestic and Family Prevention Council will be requested to establish methods for educating the public, judicial personnel and law enforcement regarding physical violence.

New York: The Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence, developed by the New York State Legislature, has established domestic violence training standard and protocols for hospitals and other health care providers. For further information, contact New York State Department of Social Services, Division of Services and Community Development, 518-474-9344.

Oregon: The state’s Office for Services to Children and Families (SCF) is attempting to change case practice by cross-training child protection workers and domestic violence workers about the relationship between the two forms of abuse. Oregon also recently ran pilot programs that place domestic violence advocates in two local SCF offices.

Rhode Island: Using funds from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the state’s health department and the Coalition Against Domestic Violence are conducting a statewide evaluation of domestic violence prevention services. They are also using funds to support public education and information campaigns and prevention efforts in community-based family centers.

Vermont: Governor Howard Dean inserted information about domestic violence on every state employee’s paychecks.

Washington: The Address Confidentiality Program established a confidential system of post office addresses for victims of domestic violence. Through the addresses, participants receive cost-free security mail forwarded by Washington’s Secretary of State. When creating records with state and local agencies, participants can disguise their actual residences on public databases "Child Support Policies and Domestic Violence," Public Welfare, Winter 1997. The Office of the Governor in coordination with the Washington State Coalition Against Domestic Violence has produced an educational pamphlet for all state employees that brings to the forefront the issue of domestic violence in the workplace. Contact the Washington State Coalition Against Domestic Violence, 360-352-4029. Former Governor Lowery issued an executive order requiring each state agency and institution of higher education to create a workplace environment that provides assistance, ensures personnel policies and procedures that are responsive to victims of domestic violence, and develops and makes available to all employees domestic violence policies. For information, contact the Governor’s office at 360-753-6780.

Private Sector Involvement

Several companies have played an active role in helping victims of domestic violence by giving their employees information about domestic violence and conducting training for employees. Some companies include: Target, Liz Claiborne, Inc., Kaiser Permanente, The Gap, Marshalls, Polaroid, Reebok and Bell Atlantic. The Employee Assistance Professional Association has asked businesses with employee assistance divisions to track reports of domestic violence among their employees, so they can develop effective referral and training programs. The Harvard School of Public Health’s Injury Control Center has received $48,000 in federal funding for a joint project with Polaroid Corp. that will survey how companies have responded to the issue of domestic violence in the workplace and identify effective strategies for preventing abuse. To find out more on company’s involvement in domestic violence workplace education, contact the National Workplace Resource Center on Domestic Violence, 415-252-8900.

Work in Progress

The Center for Law and Social Policy, as part of their welfare reform audio conference series, will be conducting a session on Domestic Violence and Welfare on Sept. 19. The call will address many questions including: To what extent does the cash assistance caseload include current and past victims of domestic violence? What does the latest research reveal regarding the magnitude and dimensions of the domestic violence/welfare interface? What are the implications for welfare/work programs when recipients are also addressing victimization issues? How is Congress approaching domestic victims’ exemption from the welfare law time limit and work requirements? What are innovative pilots/state policies related to domestic violence and welfare?

The Northwestern University/University of Chicago Joint Center for Poverty Research will be hosting a conference on Sept. 24-26, "Trapped By Poverty/Trapped by Abuse: Developing New Research Agenda on Domestic Violence and Welfare." Additional materials relating to collaboration between researchers and advocates, service providers, and policy-makers will be available. Questions or comments about the project should be directed to: Richard Tolman, University of Michigan Research Development Center on Poverty, Risk and Mental Health,

540 E. Liberty St., Suite 202, Ann Arbor, MI 48104, 313-998-8511, e-mail: rtolman@umich.edu, or Jody Raphael Taylor Institute, 915 N. Wolcott, Chicago, IL 60622, 773-342-5510.

The National Resource Center (NRC) on Domestic Violence and the National Network to End Domestic Violence are working closely with the Battered Women’s Justice Project-Civil Component, Ayuda, The Taylor Institute, NOW Legal Defense Fund, NCADV, the Women’s Legal Defense Fund and other groups to ensure that ongoing technical assistance is available. In the interim, the NRC is serving as a clearinghouse, 800-537-2238.

HHS has asked for $137 million in FY 1998 for programs to prevent violence against women, including $1.2 million for the National Domestic Violence Hotline. For HHS programs under the Violence Against Women’s Act, the department has asked for $70 million for grants to states for battered women’s shelters, $15 million for programs to reduce sexual abuse among runaway, homeless and street youth. The department is waiting for final congressional action.

Other federal agencies future plans include technical assistance to states and tribes, a child support forum, preparation of an annotated bibliography and summary of health care provider training, substance abuse treatment protocols, TANF worker training on identifying referral services for victims of domestic violence, and a resource notebook with key contacts. For other HHS, DOJ and federal agency plans, contact Michael Karpfen at HHS.

The HHS Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, with other HHS and DOJ offices, is planning a study of state practices and polices that address domestic violence in the TANF and child support enforcement programs. The Office of Child Support Enforcement’s FY 1997 research budget included a commitment to examine the intersection of domestic violence and the requirements of cooperation and good cause exception.

For More Information….

RESOURCE CONTACTS

Administration for Children Youth and Families (HHS), Washington, DC, 202-401-9215.

Ayuda, Washington, DC. Contact Minty Chung, 202-387-0434.

Better Homes Project, Newton Centre, MA, 617-964-3834.

Center for Law and Social Policy, Washington, DC. Contact Paula Roberts or Jodie Levine-Epstein, 202-328-5140.

Greater Hartford Legal Assistance Inc., Hartford, CT. Contact Jill Davies, 860-541-5000.

House Ways and Means Committee, Washington, DC. Contact Ron Haskins, 202-225-3625.

Family Violence Prevention Fund, San Francisco, CA. Contact Ester Solar, 415-252-8900.

Institute for Women’s Policy Research, Washington, DC. Contact Jackie Chu, 202-785-1921.

National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, Washington, DC. Contact Pam Coukos, 202-544-7358.

National Governors’ Association, Washington, DC. Contact Andrea Kane, 202-624-5300.

National Organization for Women, Washington, DC. Contact Jan Erickson, 202-331-0066

National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, Harrisburg, PA. Contact Anne Menard, 1-800-537-2238.

National Workplace Resource Center on Domestic Violence, San Francisco, CA. Contact Donna Norton, 415-252-8900.

NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Washington, DC. Contact Tracey Howard, 202-544-4470.

Poverty Law Project, Chicago, IL. Contact Wendy Pollack, 312-263-3830 x238.

Senator Wellstone’s Office, Washington, DC. Contact Linda Marson or Jason Kelly, 202-224-8440.

Taylor Institute, Chicago, IL. Contact Jody Raphael, 773-342-5510.

PUBLICATIONS

Catherine T. Kenney and Karen R. Brown, Report From the Front Lines – The Impact of Violence on Poor Women: 1996, NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund. 212-925-6635.

Catherine K. Ruckelshaus, Unemployment Compensation for Victims of Domestic Violence: An Important Link to Economic and Employment Security: 1996, National Employment Law Project. 212-764-2204.

Family Violence Prevention Fund, The Impact of Domestic Violence on the Workplace Fact Sheet. 415-252-8900.

Family Violence Prevention Fund, Dozens of Workplace Education Day Events Take Place Across the Country. See http://www.iga.apc.org/fund/new/wrkplace.html.

Family Violence Prevention Fund, Violence At Home Has Effect on the Workplace. See http://www.welfareinfo.org/>http:/www.iga.apc.org/fund/new/workplace/home.html</a>.</p><p>Family%20Violence%20Prevention%20Fund,%20<u>10%20Steps%20to%20Take%20in%20the%20Workplace%20to%20End%20DomesticViolence</u>.%20415-252-8900.</p><p>HHS,%20Administration%20for%20Children%20and%20Families,%20<u>Fact%20Sheet%20on%20Domestic%20Violence</u>.See%20<a%20href= or call the press office, 202-401-9215.

Institute for Women’s Policy Research, "Domestic Violence and Welfare Receipt," Welfare Reform Network News: April 11, 1997. See http://www.iwpr.org/WRNN4.HTM#Reseach.

Jessica Pearson and Esther Ann Griswold, "Child Support Policies and Domestic Violence," Public Welfare, Winter 1997: American Public Welfare Association. 202-682-0100.

Jill Davies with Minty Siu Chung, Susan Kelly-Dreiss, Kathleen Krenek, Joan Meier, Anne Menard, Sandi Murphy, Leslye Orloff, Wendy Pollack, Lucy Potter, Jody Raphael, Susan Schechter, Becky Thoroughgood and Diana Zuckerman, The New Welfare Law: Implications for Battered Woman-Introduction to the Law: October 1996.

Jody Raphael, "Domestic Violence and Welfare Receipt: Toward a New Feminist Theory of Welfare Dependency," Harvard Women’s Law Journal: Spring 1996. 773-342-5510.

Jody Raphael, Prisoners of Abuse: Domestic Violence and Welfare Receipt, Taylor Institute: April 1996. 773-342-5510.

Jody Raphael and Richard M. Tolman, Trapped by Poverty Trapped by Abuse – New Evidence Documenting the Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Welfare, Taylor Institute and University of Michigan School of Social Work: April 1997. 773-342-5510.

Louise Laurence and Roberta Spalter-Roth, Measuring the Costs of Domestic Violence Against Women and the Cost-Effectiveness of Intervention. Institute for Women’s Policy Research, Victims’ Services, and the Domestic Violence Training Project: May 1996. 202-785-1921.

Martha Davis and Pamela Coukos, Analysis of Certain Statutory Interpretation Questions Concerning the Family Violence Amendment to the PRWORA and Its Relationship to Other Legislative Provisions, NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund: October, 7, 1996. 202-544-4470.

National Governors’ Association, Fact Sheet on Domestic Violence: July 1997. Contact Andrea Kane or Rebecca Brown, 202-624-5300.

NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Summary of State Activities Regarding Family Violence Provisions in their Welfare Plans as of July 3, 1997. 202-544-4470.

Randy Albeda, Mary Ann Allard, Mary Ellen Colton, and Carol Cosenza, In Harm’s Way? Domestic Violence, AFDC Receipt, and Welfare Reform in Massachusetts, University of Massachusetts, Boston, McCormack Institute and Center for Survey Research: 1997.

Ronald Taylor, Preventing Violence Against Women and Children, Milbank Memorial Fund, 1997. 212-355-8400.

National Resource Center on Domestic Violence and the National Network to End Domestic Violence, State Implementation and Use of the Family Violence Option: December 1996. 1-800-537-2238.

Susan Lloyd, The Effects of Violence on Women’s Employment, Joint Center for Poverty Research, MacArthur Foundation: 1997. See http://www.spc.uchicago.edu/PovertyCenter/violence.html

U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, "Domestic Violence: A Workplace Issue," Facts on Working Women, No. 96-3: October 1996.

Wendy Pollack, Twice Victimized-Domestic Violence and Welfare Reform, Poverty Law Project, National Clearinghouse for Legal Services: July 1996.

Wendy Pollack and Martha Davis, The Family Violence Option of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996: Interpretation and Implementation, National Clearinghouse for Legal Services and NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund: March-April 1997.

The Welfare Information Network appreciates the assistance of the many individuals and organizations who have contributed to the list of innovative practices.