Background

Much has been written about neighborhood decline and the related loss of local employment. When businesses leave a community, some of the most severely affected are low-income residents who lack the means and information to obtain new jobs. Economic development programs, in addition to coordinating neighborhood revitalization efforts, play an important role in attracting jobs to local communities and providing job training, job placement, and support services. These programs typically assist populations similar to those served by the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program and usually operate in urban cores and rural counties, areas where TANF caseloads are concentrated.

By granting states considerable discretion in program implementation, TANF provides an opportunity for welfare and economic development programs to collaborate. Although some states have implemented successful collaborations, many have not yet combined these programs. This may be due, in part, to different cultures and a lack of understanding between agencies. Many community development efforts incorporate job training and placement components as well as provide support services to ensure job retention. TANF funds may be used for these activities. However, community economic development officials often see TANF as limited to cash assistance and family services, while TANF administrators historically have not been aware of the support community development offices can provide. By increasing understanding of the programs’ missions and addressing the programs’ different cultures, welfare and economic development agencies can combine resources to provide comprehensive assistance to community residents while stabilizing declining neighborhoods.

Many low-income workers were laid off last year as the nation’s economy slowed. Job loss has been concentrated in the sectors that tend to offer welfare recipients employment. Many fear an increase in the welfare rolls and a greater need for cash assistance. Should this occur, TANF and maintenance-of-effort (MOE) funds that have been paying for support services may no longer be available to do so. All U.S. Department of Labor Welfare-to-Work funds have been allocated. States are now spending allocations from the last round of funding. In addition, increasing Medicaid costs and declining revenue because of the recession and other factors are pressuring state budgets. By increasing collaboration between community economic development and workforce development efforts to serve low-income residents, states and communities may be better prepared to meet these challenges. This Issue Note suggests ways they can leverage resources to simultaneously revitalize neighborhoods and create jobs.

Policy and Program Issues

What role does local economic development play in job creation? Community economic development (CED) programs strive to improve the economic well-being and quality of life within a community by providing jobs and strengthening the tax base. Housing improvement, affordable housing, business development, and commercial and industrial development programs, all of which aim to stop the cycle of deterioration, are among the most common CED programs. Traditionally, local economic development agencies recruit businesses to the area, generate financing options for large-scale development projects, or help existing firms expand. By creating community-based jobs, community economic development also helps overcome the employment barriers facing many low-income workers. For example, low-income workers sometimes confront a “spacial mismatch” between the inner cities and rural counties where they live and the suburbs where jobs are located. Some also need support services to deal with transportation and child care problems, which can impede job retention. Creating job opportunities closer to home alleviates these problems by providing easy access to work and child care. It also contributes to family stability by enabling workers to spend more time with their families.

Expanding the local job base also benefits the business community. Residents of inner cities, where a large proportion of economic development efforts occur, have more spending power per acre even though their personal income is below average. In addition, some businesses receive tax incentives for locating in distressed communities.

What programs and policy tools are targeted to assist low-income communities? Prior to the implementation of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA), community-based organizations such as community action agencies (CAAs) and community development corporations (CDCs) were among the major organizations at the local level involved in community economic development. These organizations work cooperatively with local and state economic development agencies. In addition to tax incentives, CAAs and CDCs use funds from multiple federal agencies to support economic development efforts, including sectoral development and public-private ventures. Federal funding sources include the following.

• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Community Development. The Office of Community Development (OCD) provides funds under two programs. The Empowerment Zone/Enterprise Communities (EZ/EC) program is jointly managed by the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Housing and Urban Development (HUD). It assists designated communities in providing economic development assistance to residents and businesses through grants, tax incentives that are limited to a 10-year period, and partnerships with government. OCD manages the rural component of the program. The first EZ/EC communities were designated in 1994. Funds can be used to attract new business, develop vacant lots or abandoned buildings, build affordable housing, provide job training, support medical and mental health services, and provide employment opportunities for local residents. The Rural Economic Development Area Partnership Zones program addresses the constraints to economic activity and growth, low-density settlement patterns, stagnant or declining employment, and isolation particular to rural areas. For more information, contact Norman Reid at 202/619-7980 or 800/645-4712; or visit

  http://www.ezec.gov/About/index.htm.

   

• U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic Development Administration. The Economic Development Administration (EDA) provides funding for local economic development through various programs. The Public Works and Economic Development Program helps distressed communities revitalize, expand, and upgrade their physical infrastructure to attract new industry, encourage business expansion, and diversify local economies. Funds can be used for programs that support business incubation, distance learning, and business and industrial development. The Economic Adjustment Program helps states and localities design and implement strategies to adjust or bring about change in an economy. Funds generally support strategic planning, project implementation, and revolving loan funds. Partnership Planning Grants provide funds to help EDA partners develop a local comprehensive planning process leading to the formulation and implementation of economic development strategies. Short-Term Planning Grants support economic development and implementation activities, such as conducting economic analyses, defining economic development goals, and coordinating multijurisdictional planning efforts. Technical Assistance Program grants can be used to conduct feasibility studies on potential projects. For more information, contact Matthew Crow at 202/482-2309; or visit http://www.doc.gov/eda.

• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Community Service. The Office of Community Services (OCS) provides grants and technical assistance to the more than 1,100 neighborhood-based CAAs and CDCs. The Assets for Independence Program provides funds through local organizations for developing and implementing individual development accounts (IDAs) for low-income individuals and families. Savings accrued in these accounts can be used for small business capitalization and other activities. Community Services Block Grant funds are distributed to states based on a formula. States use 90 percent of the funds to support local CAAs, which may use the money for human service efforts, community economic development, microenterprise development, and other job creation activities. OCS also administers the Job Opportunities for Low-Income Individuals Program (JOLI). JOLI was expanded under PRWORA to create jobs and business opportunities for welfare recipients and other low-income individuals. Grants are provided to private, nonprofit corporations to make investments in local business enterprises that will result in the creation of new private-sector jobs for low-income individuals. The Urban and Rural Community Economic Development Program supports projects that provide employment and ownership opportunities for low-income people through business and commercial development. The emphasis is on projects that create jobs in conjunction with community revitalization efforts. The Family Violence Prevention and Services Act makes funds available for support and prevention activities that can be carried out in conjunction with economic development efforts. For more information, contact Jim Gatz at 202/401-5284; or visit http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ocs.

• U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The 2000 Community Renewal Tax Relief Act authorized HUD to designate 40 renewal communities and seven new urban empowerment zones. The Renewal Community Initiative encourages public-private collaborations to generate economic development in these distressed communities. The Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program provides annual grants on a formula basis to entitled cities, urban counties, and states for economic development in primarily low- and moderate-income communities. The Economic Development Initiative provides grants to be used in tandem with Section 108 loans for economic revitalization. Through Section 108, HUD guarantees notes that local governments use for financing revitalization activities. For more information, contact John Haines at 202/708-6339, ext 4616; or visit http://www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/communitydevelopment/index.cfm.  

• U.S. Department of Labor Welfare-to-Work funds. These funds may be used to help move eligible individuals into long-term, unsubsidized jobs. Allowable activities include job creation; on-the-job training; contracts with public or private providers of job readiness, job placement, and postemployment services; vouchers for similar employment services, community service, or work experience; job retention and support services; or six months of preemployment job training or vocational educational training. For more information, contact Dennis Lieberman at 202/693-3910; or visit http://www.welfareinfo.org/welfare.htm or http://www.doleta.gov.

• U.S. Department of Treasury, Community Development Financial Institutions Fund. This fund seeks to expand the availability of credit, investment capital, and financial services in distressed urban and rural communities. Its activities leverage private-sector investments from banks, foundations, and other funding sources. The fund makes grants to organizations that establish community-based loan funds, credit unions, and community development banks. For more information, contact 202/622-8662; or visit http://www.treas.gov/cdfi.

• Small Business Administration 8(a) Business Development program. This program assists socially and economically disadvantaged firms. Participants can receive sole-source contracts to build their competitive and institutional knowledge. For more information, contact 1-800/827-5722; or visit http://www.sba.gov/8abd/indexprograms.html.

  Other incentives to support community economic development include the following.

• The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) aims to encourage depository institutions (e.g., banks, savings and loan institutions, and credit unions) to help meet the credit needs of the communities in which they operate, including low- and moderate-income neighborhoods. CRA requires the record of each insured depository institution in helping meet its community’s credit needs to be evaluated periodically. That record is taken into account in considering an institution’s application for deposit facilities, including mergers and acquisitions. For more information, contact David Roderer at 202/874-4428; or visit http://www.occ.treas.gov/crainfo.htm.  

• The New Markets program is a tax subsidy that seeks to redirect funds to low- to moderate-income communities. By making a financial investment in an eligible “community development entity” (CDE), individual and corporate investors receive a New Markets Tax Credit that is a percentage of the amount invested. Eligible CDEs include community development financial institutions, for-profit subsidiaries of community development corporations, New Markets venture capital companies licensed by the Small Business Administration, and specialized small business investment companies. For more information, contact Matt Josephs at 202/622-9254; or visit http://www.cdfifund.gov/programs/newmarkets/index.html.  

• The Work Opportunity Tax Credit aims to increase the earnings of disadvantaged workers, including TANF recipients, by providing employers with an incentive to hire and retain these workers. The credit amount that employers receive depends on how long they retain credit eligible workers and the wages they pay them. Employers who certify employees for 400 or more hours qualify for a credit equal to 40 percent of up to $6,000 in wages, for a maximum credit of $2,400. For more information, contact Carmen Ortez at 202/693-2786; or visit http://www.workforcesecurity.doleta.gov/employ/updates.asp. The legislative authority for this tax credit expired December 31, 2001, but it is funded at $21 million for fiscal 2002.  

• The Welfare-to-Work Tax Credit is available to employers who hire individuals certified as long-term family assistance recipients. The credit amount is 35 percent of qualifying first-year wages and 50 percent of qualifying second-year wages. For more information, visit http://www.workforcesecurity.doleta.gov/employ/wtw.asp. The legislative authority for this tax credit expired December 31, 2001, but it is funded at $21 million for fiscal 2002.  

• How can TANF funds be used to support local programs? The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services specifically mentions community development as an appropriate use of TANF funds in a 1999 guide on funding. Helping Families Achieve Self-Sufficiency: A Guide on Funding Services for Children and Families Through TANF Programs, at http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ofa/funds2.htm, outlines ways that TANF and MOE funds can be used to transform declining neighborhoods into productive ones by creating jobs and supporting work. Among the strategies are to:  

• provide grants to welfare planning councils for addressing recipient needs within a specific local area;

• provide loans to local small businesses that hire and train TANF recipients;
• fund local microenterprise efforts and encourage the creation and use of individual development accounts to support microenterprise development;
• fund local organizations or community development corporations that employ TANF recipients by covering a share of the planning and development financing; and
• provide subsidized work or wage support, in conjunction with economic development funds, to CDCs involved in a project’s physical development.

Funds may also be used to support activities such as child care, education and training, substance abuse treatment, and domestic violence prevention. For an in-depth discussion on promoting collaboration between TANF and community development, see Weiss and Kelly, February 2000.

Combining welfare and economic development efforts is difficult because each agency has a specific “culture” that can sometimes be at odds with the other and each has a different mission and definition of success. On the one hand, welfare agencies hesitate to get involved in economic development because, similar to new business start-ups, the process can be very risky and replete with opportunities to fail. On the other hand, the CDC community needs to understand the incentives and disincentives of working with TANF agencies. Economic development agencies should be encouraged to recognize the human service aspects of business development. Together they should strive to define community needs and focus on common goals.

In New York, the labor department administers welfare employment programs. The programs are  performance-based and tied to job creation. Operated in conjunction with local workforce investment boards, they have proven to be very business-friendly and have significantly increased the number of jobs. Contact: Karen Papandrea, New York State Department of Labor, 518/485-6289.

Vermont has successfully combined TANF and MOE funds with other resources to develop several economic development projects that serve the low-income community. In addition to providing job development and training services, the state developed an incumbent worker training program and sectoral business initiatives. Contact: Diana Carminati, Vermont Department of Prevention Assistance, Transition and Health Access, 802/241-2834.

The Illinois State Agenda for Community Economic Development (SACED) appropriated funds to a coalition of community-based organizations to develop welfare-to-work, industrial retention, and sectoral job training programs to improve the skills of unemployed and underemployed workers. SACED designed the training specifically to meet the skill requirements of local employers. The training was paid for by a $1-million appropriation from the department of human services for fiscal 2000–01, and participants had to be MOE-eligible. Because of a renewed emphasis on serving the hardest to place, state funds were not reappropriated during the last fiscal year. Contact: Whitney Smith, Chicago Jobs Council, 312/252-0460, ext. 306.

What other resources can support local economic development? Foundation and corporate support intermediaries, individual development accounts, and faith-based organizations are other resources that can support economic development efforts. For example, the following programs successfully accessed and used multiple resources to encourage job development for welfare recipients in conjunction with local economic development. They did so by working across agency boundaries and by incorporating services to low-income residents as part of an overall economic development strategy.

The Annie E. Casey Foundation’s Making Connections project is part of the foundation’s efforts to enable residents, civic groups, public and private leadership, and faith-based organizations to transform neighborhoods into family-supportive environments. The initiative requires participating communities in 22 cities nationwide to facilitate economic opportunity for local residents through access to jobs that support local labor market needs, the development of social networks, and the provision of support services. The foundation is working to provide neighborhood-scale programs, policies, and activities that contribute to stable, capable families. For more information, visit http://www.aecf.org/initiatives/ntfd/making.htm.

Intermediaries, such as the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC) and the Enterprise Foundation, help local community development organizations implement economic development programs by providing capital, information, and technical assistance. LISC provides direct assistance to CDCs and builds cooperative efforts among local LISC programs, CDCs, and foundations. LISC’s economic development programs include a Neighborhood Main Street Initiative that assists CDCs with neighborhood business district revitalization efforts and a Neighborhood Franchise Project that works with CDCs to help locate franchise businesses in communities where they may be underrepresented. Contact Sheila Davis at 212/455-9803 for information on Main Street; Valerie Chang at 212/455-9306 for information on the Neighborhood Franchise Project; or visit http://www.liscnet.org. The Enterprise Foundation provides targeted grants and technical assistance to nonprofit organizations that are building and revitalizing local neighborhoods. Funding differs for specific geographic areas. For more information, visit

http://www.enterprisefoundation.org/about/whoweare/whoWeAre.asp; or contact Susan Fingerman at 410/964-9230.

Individual development accounts (IDAs) are matched individual savings accounts for low-income people that can be used for business capitalization, home ownership, or postsecondary education. States can use TANF funds to create community-based IDA programs. The funds accrued are disregarded when determining eligibility for all means-tested government assistance. CDCs and other community organizations can develop and administer these accounts. For more information, visit http://www.welfareinfo.org/individu.asp.

Many faith-based organizations have been providing human services for some time. Several have expanded into community development activities, and their involvement is increasing. This involvement will most likely continue given the current administration’s emphasis on their participation. Faith-based organizations can participate by providing job training, developing local business opportunities, managing IDAs, or serving as one-stop career centers.

Research Findings

Most research pertaining to the hiring of welfare recipients was conducted prior to the recent economic downturn. When the labor market was tight, the demand for TANF recipients was high. Holzer and Stoll (2001) found that businesses were receptive to hiring welfare recipients and others with little work experience provided they demonstrated a willingness to work. Employers considered former welfare recipients to be as good or better than other employees in similar jobs. Job turnover among this population was not significantly higher than among the rest of the workforce. However, those most likely to hire welfare recipients were businesses with a high vacancy rate. In addition, businesses that were easily accessible to potential employees did most of the hiring. These findings reiterate the importance of expanding employment opportunities in communities where low-income workers reside through increased business development.

Research by the Economic Policy Institute indicates that the current downturn has created significant job loss in the sectors where many former TANF recipients had found work. For example, employment in personnel supply services decreased nearly 5 percent between June and October 2001 (see Boushey, December 12, 2001). Between September and October 2001, 111,000 service sector jobs were lost. Furthermore, job loss in the industries most likely to employ welfare recipients is occurring more rapidly than during the last recession. Those willing to work in cooperation with human services agencies to create locally based job opportunities can enhance local economic development and increase earnings while keeping consumer spending in the community.

Yet many business leaders lack the information necessary to facilitate entry to low-income markets. According to statistics from the Initiative for a Competitive Inner City, 54 percent of workforce growth during the next ten years will come from minority communities, which are heavily concentrated in cities and inner cities. Although America’s inner cities account for approximately 7 percent of all U.S. retail spending, nearly 25 percent of inner-city retail demand is unmet by retailers in those locations. Furthermore, individuals with incomes below $30,000 account for nearly one-third of all consumer spending (see Weissbourd and Berry, n.d.). When markets decline, residents are forced to make purchases outside their communities, resulting in “job leakage.” Coordinating efforts to promote sustainable local economic development can result in outcomes that are larger than the sum of the effects on local residents—neighborhood stability, job creation, retention and advancement, improved living conditions, and an increased economic base.

Program Examples

States, community organizations, and CDCs can creatively leverage resources to develop successful work opportunities for low-income residents in conjunction with community economic development efforts. The following examples illustrate how they can do so.

By taking a holistic approach to human resource issues, Vermont is supporting economic development by providing job training and placement services and helping local businesses retain workers. The state TANF office reimburses employers who provide training for, and agree to hire, TANF recipients. One of the goals outlined in the state CDBG plan for 2000 was to move people from welfare to work. Employers who hire former TANF recipients are eligible for tax credits paid for from CDBG funds. The Workforce Education and Training Fund can be used to train and place new and incumbent workers. In addition, the Economic Program Council recruits new businesses to low-income areas by providing tax credits. The Vermont Department of Prevention, Assistance, Transition, and Health Access (PATH) has recently begun working with the Vermont Workforce Investment Board to identify labor market needs and provide the vocational training needed by workers to fill job slots. PATH also works in conjunction with local CAAs to identify and train micro-entrepreneurs. For more information, contact Diana Carminati at 802/241-2834 or dianac@path.state.vt.us.

New York’s Individual Vocational Education and Skills Training (InVEST) is specifically tied to local economic development. InVEST has two components: Job Start and Job Ladder. In Job Start, labor market analyses are used to identify demand occupations and job training efforts are tied to the needs of local employers. Participating community organizations provide skills training to TANF-eligible individuals or others with incomes at 200 percent of poverty who are unemployed or underemployed. The program is performance-based; providers are paid with TANF funds for specific job training, case closures, or earnings increases received by participants. Job Ladder enables employers to act as trainers, providing current workers with the skills needed to advance within the company and opening new slots for additional TANF recipients. To date 5,500 individuals have participated in the program. The average salary at placement is $8.50 per hour, and more than 20 percent of participants are paid $10 or more per hour. For more information, contact Karen Papandrea at 518/485-6289; or visit http://www.labor.state.ny.us.

Villa Tech is a technology village in Boston, Massachusetts, that the Inquillinos Boricuos en Accion (IBA) created to enable a predominantly low-income Latino community to cross the digital divide and to facilitate self-directed educational and employment-related activities. Ultimately, each household will have 24-hour Internet access. Cisco Systems donated more than $125,000 in equipment in addition to financial support, online assistance, volunteers, and programmatic experience. To be eligible for the computers, residents had to complete an introductory training offered at the community technology center and sign a contract agreeing to use the new technology in their homes for personal and academic enrichment. They pay a $10.00 monthly fee to participate and receive unlimited access to training classes and support from a community help desk. Work-related courses in word processing and resume writing are available for residents. IBA also provided job training support to a local vendor that recruited TANF recipients from the Villa Victoria community and surrounding neighborhoods. With the community technology center now in operation, IBA hopes to provide direct job training assistance to local residents. For more information, contact David J. Cortiella at 617/927-1707; or visit http://www.iba-etc.org.

About four years ago, the Northwest Side Community Development Corporation (NWCDC) in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, along with Eaton Corporation and the Milwaukee Area Technical College, used TANF funds to provide job training and placement services for local TANF recipients. The college and Eaton designed a 12-week training course to provide TANF recipients with the training needed to work at the company’s Navy Controls division. The division, located within the community, manufactured electrical motor controls, power control systems, and power conversion equipment for the military. NWCDC provided additional job training for participants, concentrating on job readiness. Initially, former TANF recipients found work with Eaton. The recent economic downturn has resulted in layoffs, but 20 percent of those who lost their jobs have been able to obtain new employment using the skills they attained through the initial training. More recently, NWCDC was instrumental in creating another 200 local jobs by working to keep a grocery store in the community. Federal TANF dollars were used to help lower the debt ratio of overall project costs and ensure that the CDC secured employment for local residents. Nearly half of the hires were individuals moving from welfare to work. For more information, contact Una Van Duvall at 414/438-8300; or visit http://www.nwscdc.org/.

The Greater Holyoke CDC in Holyoke, Massachusetts, encourages participants in its workforce development program to consider an IDA once they have obtained jobs and are able to contribute to the account. The IDA matches participants’ savings at a ratio of 3 to 1, and savings can be used for business capitalization, homeownership, or postsecondary education. Matching funds for the two-year IDA program come from an Assets for Independence grant, local foundations banks, and other state funds. Of the 39 current participants, two are former TANF recipients. In addition, the CDC is working with the local housing authority to recruit TANF-eligible participants for job placement in local long-term care facilities. The CDC provides participants with job readiness training and placement services. It also provides support services, which continue once they are placed. For more information, contact Andrew Morehouse at 413/536-4611.

New Community Corporation (NCC), in Newark, New Jersey, was created in 1968 by Monsignor William J. Linder, a local parish priest, and some community residents in response to the civil unrest of the previous year. In addition to providing human services programs, NCC is dedicated to building a local economic base and keeping jobs and business profits in the community. NCC brought 350 new jobs back to the community by supporting the development of a shopping center that now draws 50,000 shoppers per week. NCC also acts as a one-stop center, which serves as a Center for Employment Training (CET) site. It also operates the Youth Automotive Training Campus, a job-oriented 15-month program that provides automotive technician training for at-risk youth and guarantees job placement for program graduates. Gateway to Work programs offer welfare recipients job search and placement services, alternative work experience, and support services such as job coaching and referrals for substance abuse treatment. For more information, contact Lesley Leslie at 973/623-2800.

Resource Contacts

Annie E. Casey Foundation, Making Connections, 410/547-6600.

Center for Community Change, Ruth Cohen, 202/339-9354 or rcohen@communitychange.org; or http://www.nationalcampaign.org.

Committee for Economic Development, Vandorn Ooms, 202/296-5860.

Economic Development Assistance Corporation, Marcus Weiss, 617/742-4481 or EDCAmark@aol.com; or visit http://www.ncced.org/edac.html.

Community Development Financial Institutions Fund, Matt Josephs, 202/622-9254.

The Enterprise Foundation, Susan Fingerman, 410/964-9230. 

EZ/EC Foundation Consortium, 301/652-7590.

Initiative for a Competitive Inner City, Orson Watson, 617/292-2363; or http://www.icic.org.

Local Initiatives Support Corporation, Sheila Davis, 212/455-9803, or Valerie Chang, 212/455-9306.

National Governors Association, Martin Simon, 202/624-5300 or msimon@nga.org.

Public/Private Ventures, Carol Clymer, 215/557-4400.

Donald Sykes, human services consultant, sykesdon@yahoo.com.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Community Development, Norman Reid, 202/619-7980.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic Development Administration, Matthew Crow, 202/482-2309.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Community Services, Jim Gatz, 202/401-5284.

U.S. Department of Labor, Work Opportunity Tax Credit and Welfare-to-Work Tax Credit, Carmen Ortez, 202/693-2786.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, John Haines, 202/708-6339, ext. 4616.

U.S. Department of Labor, Dennis Lieberman, 202/693-3910.

U.S. Department of Treasury, David Roderer, 202/874-4428.

Publications

Boushey, Heather. “Last Hired, First Fired.” EPI Issue Brief No. 171 (December 12, 2001). Economic Policy Institute, Washington, D.C. Available at http://www.epinet.org.

Clymer, Carol, Brandon Roberts, and Julie Strawn. States of Change: Policies and Programs to Promote Low-Wage Workers’ Steady Employment and Advancement. Philadelphia, Pa.: Public/Private Ventures, May 2001. Available at http://www.ppv.org/content/reports/statesofchange.html.

Holzer, Harry J., and Michael A. Stoll. Employers and Welfare Recipients: The Effects of Welfare Reform in the Workplace. San Francisco, Calif.: Public Policy Institute of California, 2001. Available at http://www.ppic.org/.

Katz, Bruce, and Katherine Allen. “Cities Matter: Shifting the Focus of Welfare Reform.” Brookings Review 19, no. 3 (summer 2001): 30-33. Available at http://www.brookings.edu/press/REVIEW/summer2001/katz.htm.

Leonard, Paul, and Maureen Kennedy. What Cities Need from Welfare Reform Reauthorization. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, November 2001. Available at http://www.brookings.edu/es/urban/publications/leonkencitieswelfareexsum.htm.

Su, Betty W. “Employment Outlook 2000–10: The U.S. Economy to 2010.” Monthly Labor Review, vol. 124, no.  11 (November 2001): 3–20. Available at http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2001/11/art1full.pdf.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance. Helping Families Achieve Self-Sufficiency: A Guide on Funding Services for Children and Families through the TANF Program. Washington, D.C., spring 1999. Available at http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ofa/funds2.htm.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Faith-Based Organizations in Community Development. Washington, D.C., August 2001. Available at http://www.huduser.org/publications/pdf/faithbased.pdf.

Weiss, Markus, and Kevin Kelly. Building Partnerships Between State TANF Initiatives and CDC: A Guidebook for Practitioners and State Officials. Washington, D.C.: National Congress for Economic Development, February 2000. Visit http://www.ncced.org.

Weissbourd, Robert, and Christopher Berry. Attracting Business Involvement to Neighborhood Markets. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, n.d. Available at http://www.brook.edu/es/urban/weissbourd.pdf.

Wyman, Carol. New Markets Tax Credit: Community Renewal and New Markets Act of 2000. Washington, D.C.: National Congress for Community Economic Development, 2001. Available at http://www.ncced.org/policy/NMlegisanalysis.htm.

The Welfare Information Network is supported by grants form the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and the Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.